Mormon history

The Church of Christ (the original name for the Mormon Church) was organised with six founding members in Fayette, New York on April 6, 1830. (The full name, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was given by revelation in 1838.) The earliest members were almost all the family and friends of the prophet Joseph Smith. Persecution in New York, coupled with strong growth in Kirtland, Ohio, caused the Church to move to that town. Subsequently the Church moved again, first to Western Missouri, then to Illinois, and ultimately across the great plains to the Rocky Mountains. All attempts to wipe out or dislodge the Saints from that region failed, and with the ending of official persecution at the close of the nineteenth century, the Church entered upon a sustained period of growth and prosperity, which continues to this day.

New York/Pennsylvania Period

The real history of the Church at this period is the story of Joseph Smith and his family, and begins long before the Church was formally organized. Most historians date this period of Church history between 1820 and 1830, shortly after the formal organization of the Church. The period includes many significant and formative events not only for the Church, but also in Joseph Smith's life.

Angelic Visitations

On September 21, 1823, about three and a half years after his First Vision, Joseph Smith was led again to pray for forgiveness of his sins, and to know his standing before God. Although he reported that his previous experience had led him to confidently expect an answer, and even a miraculous manifestation, the content of that answer astonished him. He was visited that night by an angel who announced himself as Moroni, and told Joseph of the existence of a record engraved on golden plates. The angel told Joseph that it would be his responsibility to obtain these plates, which were buried in a hillside near his home, and translate the contents. The angel quoted a number of prophecies from the Bible, saying that they were about to be fulfilled, and gave Joseph additional instructions.

The angel returned twice more that night and repeated the instructions he had given, and again the next day. Joseph went to the place the angel had indicated and attempted to recover the plates, but the angel appeared and told him that the time was not yet right. He instructed Joseph to return to that spot yearly on that date (September 22) for further instructions. This Joseph did, and was permitted to recover the plates on his final visit in 1827.

Digging for Money

In the intervening period, a number of significant events had happened in Joseph's life. His idolized elder brother, Alvin, had died just two months after Moroni's first visit. Despite this loss, his family, through much hard work, had begun to prosper. Rumors of Joseph's visions had begun to spread through the surrounding countryside, with the result that as well as hiring out as a laborer, Joseph was sought after for his presumed supernatural talents. Perhaps for this reason, in 1825 he was employed by Josiah Stowell, a wealthy resident of South Bainbridge in Chenango County, New York, to help him locate a Spanish silver mine believed to be somewhere in the vicinity.

Although this enterprise was unsuccessful, it bore fruit in another way. While employed by Stowell, Joseph and his father boarded at the home of Isaac Hale. There Joseph met Hale's daughter, Emma, and subsequently married her. He also had his first taste of official persecution when one of Stowell's relations, evidently jealous of Joseph's friendship with Stowell, contrived to get him arrested on trumped-up charges. He was brought before a local magistrate and discharged without trial. Rumors about this event, which by all solid evidence constitutes Joseph's only involvement with the "money-digging" industry, have been parlayed by some detractors into a long-running money-digging career and a criminal conviction, neither of which can be sustained by the evidence.

Translating the Book of Mormon

By the Autumn of 1827 Joseph was 21 years old, then the age of legal majority, and married. After Joseph obtained the plates, he moved to Harmony, Pennsylvania, and began to try to translate the plates. Ultimately he was able to do this, with the help of his wife Emma, Martin Harris and especially Oliver Cowdery, and in March of 1830 the translated work was published as the Book of Mormon. Joseph's own account of these events is found in the scriptures of the Church.

Shortly after the Book of Mormon was published, Joseph received a divine commandment to organize the Church. This organization occurred on April 6, 1830, in the home of Joseph Knight, in Fayette, New York. (Some historians believe it was in Palmyra, but the evidence in support of this location is slender, and the place a relatively unimportant detail anyway.)

Immediately after the Church was founded, missionaries began preaching. The first missionary was Joseph's own brother, Samuel H. Smith. These missionaries converted many in the areas around Fayette, Colesville, and Manchester, New York. Missionaries were sent in all directions. One group in the summer of 1830 went west to preach to the Native American Indians. Along the way the taught and converted many around Kirtland, Ohio.

Kirtland Period

Persecution dogged the Mormons in New York. Soon, Joseph received a revelation commanding him and the other Mormons to move to Kirtland, Ohio, where a strong congregation had sprung up. In January 1831, Joseph Smith arrived in Kirtland and greeted the new converts. Immediately, he and the other leaders began organizing and ordering the Church. In May that year, the other Mormons from New York came to Kirtland. This small town by Cleveland became the headquarters of the Church from January 1831 to December 1837. This period is one of the most important periods in Mormon history for doctrine and organization. Edward Partridge was asked to be a bishop. Other officers were called. The Lord commanded the Mormons to buy land and divide it amongst the poor so that everyone could have a place of inheritance. All the poor among them were helped.

In July, 1831, a revelation commanded Joseph and others to go to Missouri. There the Lord revealed that Jackson County was the center place for the gathering of the Church. Throughout the next several decades, this idea of gathering was essential to Mormon teachings, and still plays a great role. Immediately the Church bought lands in Jackson County and many Mormons began immigrating there. In November, the Church began to collect the revelations received by Joseph Smith into one volume that would later be called the Doctrine and Covenants. Edward Partridge was assigned to stay in Missouri and lead the Church there. Newell K. Whitney became bishop in Kirtland.

The next few years were both trying and glorious. Many revelations were received by the Prophet. In April, Joseph Smith was recognized and sustained as President of the Church. A newspaper was published called the Evening and Morning Star. The Church also purchased the scrolls that Joseph Smith translated as the Book of Abraham. However, many trials came. Persecution continued by neighbors who feared the power of these new move-ins, and others spread scandalous libel about Joseph and other leaders. In March, 1832, on a cold night, Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon, a local convert who had become one of the leading spokesmen for the Church, were tarred and feathered. To make it worse, Joseph's infant, adopted son died from exposure caused the mob's invasion of Joseph's home.

In 1833, the first Mormon temple[1]was begun in Kirtland. The Mormons felt it was a commandment and blessing from God to build this temple, even though they were very poor at the time. Also near this time, Joseph received the revelation that came to be known as the Word of Wisdom. This revelation showed that alcohol, tobacco, coffee, and tea were harmful to the body and should be avoided. It also enjoined the use of wholesome herbs, fruits and vegetables, and encouraged people to eat meat sparingly.

Meanwhile, the Mormons in Jackson County, Missouri was being persecuted and driven. They were expelled from their homes in November, 1833. After ineffectual appeals to local and state governments, Joseph Smith organized Zion's Camp to aid the beleaguered Mormons in Missouri, which the Mormons called Zion. Ultimately Zion's Camp included over 200 men and a couple dozen women and children, not to mention Joseph Smith's dog. The aim was not a military offensive, but assistance and defense of the driven and persecuted Mormons. The members of Zion's Camp suffered much along the way and when they arrived the found the members in Missouri already driven into Clay County, just north of Jackson County. Since the state refused to help the Mormons, even though they had been unjustly and illegally driven from their land, Joseph and the other leaders helped the exiles get temporary shelter in Clay County until more permanent possessions could be found. The good people of Clay County, though not desirous of having the Mormons live among them, nevertheless permitted them to recoup their strength for a time.

Returning from Zion's Camp, Joseph and other leaders organized the governing bodies of the Church. They established the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and the Seventy. Both groups immediately left for missions. Later in August, 1835, the first copy of what was to become known as the Doctrine and Covenants was published under the name Book of Commandments.

1836 proved to be both a glorious and tragic year. The Kirtland Temple was completed in the spring and was dedicated in March. The day of dedication was like the day of Pentecost in the Book of Acts. Many reported seeing angels, speaking in tongues, and seeing visions. Others heard angels singing. In April, while praying fervently in the Temple, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery had vision of the Savior, Jesus Christ, and several of the ancient prophets. In November, several leading members of the Church, including Joseph Smith, established a type of bank called the Kirtland Safety Society. Financial trouble caused by rampant speculation and a nationwide panic in 1837 led to the collapse of the Kirtland Safety Society. Many blamed Joseph and called him a fallen prophet. Embittered former members stirred up persecution against the Church in the surrounding counties. In 1837, the Twelve Apostles left on missions to England, the first foreign mission of the Mormon Church. Meanwhile, a revelation came to Joseph that the Church needed to be in one body. He left in late 1837 for Far West, Missouri. The rest followed over the next few years, most on them in spring, 1838. The glorious days of Kirtland were over. The Church moved west.

Missouri Period

The period of Mormon settlement in and their ultimate expulsion from Missouri figures as one of the most tragic periods in both Mormon and American History. The Mormon experience in Missouri tested American commitment to free exercise of religion, freedom to vote, and ultimately the ability of a democratic government to protect unpopular minorities. Mormons started gathering, as they called it, to Missouri as early as July of 1831, when Joseph received a revelation designating Jackson County, Missouri as the center place for the gathering of the Church. Edward Partridge was appointed to stay and lead the Church there, while Newell K. Whitney replaced him in Kirtland as bishop.

The Church now had two centers, one in Ohio and now this new one in Missouri. Soon, more members of the Church lived in Missouri than in Ohio, even though the main leadership remained in Kirtland. The Mormons began buying land and establishing themselves in and around Independence in Jackson County. Many of the New York Mormons moved directly to Jackson County and never stayed in Ohio.

Early on, however, the local Missourians became wary of the newcomers. Most Missourians were southerners and pro-slavery. Most Mormons were northerners and anti-slavery. The influx of Mormons threatened to unbalance the political situation and local non-Mormon government leaders feared the Mormons would become politically too powerful. By July of 1833, Missourians threatened to expel all Mormons. That same month, mobs attacked Mormons, tarred and feathered Mormon leaders and destroyed shops, homes, and the printing press that was being used to print Joseph’s revelations. Mormon leaders agreed, under duress, that all Mormons would leave Jackson County, without compensation for their property, by April of 1834. Appeals to the government and the President of the United States went unheeded. This led Joseph Smith to launch the Zion’s Camp march.

The Mormons found temporary refuge in Clay County, but the residents made it clear that they could not stay. In 1836, the residents of Clay County voted to expel the Mormons and the state government created Caldwell County for their home. The Mormons industriously built up new cities throughout Caldwell County, but their numbers swelled and they spilled over into Ray, Carroll, Clinton and Daviess Counties.

Mobs continued to attack outlying areas and some Mormons were fed up with running. A few organized defenses and retaliatory attacks. Sidney Rigdon, who had never fully recovered from his injuries sustained when he was tarred and feathered, delivered a fiery speech condemning the apostates and their enemies. Some took this as license to fight back. The battles escalated.

As the Kirtland Mormons began arriving in Far West, the new headquarters for the Church, in early 1838, the saints were again mobbed by those who feared their growing power and their unusual beliefs. Some feared the Mormons would vote as a block. In August of 1838, Mormons attempting to vote in the town of Gallitin in Daviess County were attacked and kept from the polls. Wild rumors spread and both sides expected a full out war. A group of Mormons calling themselves Danites, led by a recent convert named Samson Avard, began to fight back without Joseph or the Church either knowing or approving what they were doing. Ultimately, many Danites were excommunicated. In October, Mormon Apostle David W. Patten was killed in a battle along the Crooked River in Ray County. Finally, on October 27, 1838, Governor Lilburn W. Boggs issued what later became known as the Extermination Order. It said, in part:

The Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary, for the public peace-their outrages are beyond all description. If you can increase your force, you are authorized to do so, to any extent you may consider necessary.[2]

Though not enforced after the 1830s, the Extermination Order remained on the Missouri law books until 1976. Three days after the Extermination Order, a mob attacked the village of Haun’s Mill and massacred dozens of men, women and children. On October 31, 1838, Joseph Smith and several others were arrested. The militia leaders illegally condemned the men to death, but Alexander Doniphan, a former state legislator and friend to Mormons, refused to allow it to be carried out.

The Mormons were once more driven from their homes in the dead of winter. Brigham Young and the other members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles lead them to Illinois where kind people took care of them. Joseph Smith and a few others were forced to languish in jail until April of the following year. They were not permitted to see their families or even to call witnesses on their behalf. After several abortive attempts at a trial, a kindly jailer let Joseph Smith and the others escape to Illinois where they rejoined their families.

Nauvoo and the Martyrdom

Nauvoo the Beautiful, the City of Joseph

The Mormons who had been expelled from Missouri found refuge in the city of Quincy, Illinois in January of 1839. The kind people there helped the Mormons until they could find a place of their own. Brigham Young and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles led the Church while Joseph remained in prison. Finally, on April 16, a friendly guard, realizing that Joseph and the others were being confined illegally, allowed them to escape.

On April 25, Joseph and the other leaders selected a town named Commerce in Hancock County, Illinois to be their new city. It was a beautiful, though swampy location overlooking a large bend in the Mississippi river. They bought the land and began settling there. The Twelve Apostles soon left again to preach the Gospel. Joseph Smith remained behind to help build up the new city. Joseph changed the name to Nauvoo, which comes from the Hebrew word meaning beautiful .

The Mormons were still anxious either to return to their lands in Missouri or get just compensation. Joseph directed them to write down everything that had happened and to try to account for all that they had lost. In October, 1839, Joseph Smith took these affadavits to Washington, D.C. where he spoke with members of the U.S. Congress and met with President Martin Van Buren. They told them that since Missouri was a sovereign state, only Missouri could redress their wrongs. Though Joseph told them that the Governor Boggs refused, President Van Buren still said he could not help the Mormons.

Joseph returned to Nauvoo. He and the other leaders determined that they would not let themselves be driven and harassed by illegal mobs again. They petitioned for and obtained a charter for their own city which gave them the legal right to defend themselves against attacks both from the law and from mobs. The charter for Nauvoo created a city militia, which was very common at the time, but also established a university. It also stated that no resident of Nauvoo could be arrested without a writ of habeas corpus before a city judge. This meant that no person living in Nauvoo could be dragged off by mobs or sheriffs without getting a fair chance to hear the charges against them.

Nauvoo prospered and soon immigrants began arriving from England and Canada. In 1840, the Church was ten years old and had grown from a mere 6 members in April, 1830, to over 16,000 by the end of 1840. There were now enough Mormons in England that the Church began publishing its own newspaper in that county, The Millennial Star.

In the fall of that year, the Mormons began building the Nauvoo Temple and Joseph Smith announced a revelation teaching baptism for the dead. This meant that all those who had ever lived without having had a chance to hear the Gospel of Jesus Christ, could still accept it through a vicarious ordinance.

By 1841, the number of Mormons had grown so that they spilling over into Hancock County and across the Mississippi into Iowa. Persecution followed them and the Missouri state government tried multiple times to extradite Joseph Smith and the other leaders back to Missouri. Someone had attempted to assassinate Governor Boggs, and though there no evidence, Boggs was convinced Joseph Smith was behind it. Fortunately, the Missourians could never extradite anyone because they had no evidence and the Nauvoo charter required some proof before the person could be extradited.

Also in 1841, the Twelve Apostle continued their missions in Europe. Elder Orson Hyde, one of the Apostles, traveled throughout Europe and even visited Palestine, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. In November of 1841, Joseph Smith dedicated part of the new Nauvoo Temple so it could be used for baptisms for the dead.

The early part of 1842 was relatively peaceful. In the spring, a newspaper man in Chicago named John Wentworth requested from Joseph Smith a brief summary of the history of the Church and what it believed. Joseph complied. The letter, known as the Wentworth letter, is an important source of Mormon history; it also contains the Articles of Faith. On March 17, 1842, Joseph Smith organized the Women’s Relief Society. Emma Smith, Joseph’s wife, became the first president. The Relief Society organized the women. They thereafter appointed teachers, taught one another the gospel and organized relief and service programs. One of their early missions was to provide relief for the poor and assist in building the Nauvoo Temple; hence the organization was called the Relief Society. Today the Relief Society is among the largest and oldest women’s organizations in the world.

The remaineder of 1842 and most of 1843 were not so peaceful. While construction of the new town and especially the temple continued, Joseph and other leaders were often forced into hiding. In May, John C. Bennett, who had become a close associate and friend of Joseph Smith, was excommunicated from the Church because of adultery. He tried to claim that Joseph had given him permission to do this, but ultimately he confessed. After he left the Church, he became very bitter and began writing attacks on Joseph Smith and the Church. This forced Joseph to spend much of the fall in hiding. From his hiding places, Joseph continued writing letters to the Church.

In 1843, Joseph continued to alternate periods of hiding from his persecutors and publicly teaching the Gospel, often in groves of trees. Joseph taught about the importance of gathering all Mormons together and building temples. In July, he recorded a revelation about polygamy, or plural marriage as Mormons usually called it. Joseph had been troubled by Old Testament accounts about prophets like Abraham who had multiple wives. He asked the Lord about this. The Lord responded that sometimes he commands men to take extra wives, but that they can only do this when God commands them and they must be very careful. Joseph was still troubled by this, but he began teaching it to some of his most loyal associates. After much prayer, most of them accepted it as a revelation from God.

Some, however, were not pleased. Since John C. Bennett, who had been mayor of Nauvoo, left after being excommunicated, Joseph Smith became mayor. Some felt that he had too much power being president of the Church and mayor. Joseph replied that he was not autocratic, but that he taught the people principles and left them to govern themselves. In early 1844, Joseph Smith appointed seven men to oversee the Seventy. This corresponds to the seven men the Apostles in Jesus’ time appointed (see Acts 7:3).

Early 1844 was a trying time. Some people dissented from the Church because they either opposed polygamy or felt that Joseph Smith had fallen from being a prophet. Anti-Mormons and former Mormons like Bennett continued to stir up trouble by publishing scandalous and libelous reports about the Mormons and Joseph Smith, whom they mockingly called Joe Smith or Peepstone Joe. Joseph decided that to respond to these critics he needed a national forum. He therefore decided to run for President of the United States. It is unlikely he expected to win, but he and the Church used this as a platform to express their views. Joseph Smith promised that if elected he would use the government to protect minorities. He also planned to end slavery by establishing a fund to buy slaves from slave owners, and then free them. The slave owners could use the money to transform their estates so that they would no longer need slaves.

The Martyrdom

On June 7, 1844, William Law, a disaffected Mormon, published the first and only edition of the Nauvoo Expositor. It was scandalous paper that called for Joseph Smith to be hung. It described in lurid prose all the evil things they suspected Joseph and other leaders of doing. On June 10, Joseph Smith as mayor and the city council met to decide what to do. They determined that based on their interpretation of their charter, they had the power to remove the press since it posed an imminent threat by calling for violence. The press and most copies of the paper were destroyed. A riot ensued and the next day Joseph Smith was sought by the county sheriff on charges of inciting riot. Fearful that a mob would attack him when in jail or that the trial would be unfair, Joseph hid for a few days. He sought a change of venue, but was denied. Governor Thomas Ford came from Springfield to oversee the affair. He promised Joseph Smith protection and fair trial if he turned himself in. On July 22, Joseph surrendered himself to the governor. Joseph was taken to Carthage, Illinois, the county seat of Hancock County. Many of friends refused to leave him, but Joseph ordered them to leave, trusting in the governor’s promise of protection. The governor left Carthage on June 26, and left the Carthage militia, called the Carthage Greys, in charge.

On June 27, 1844, Joseph arose early. He ordered his remaining friends to leave. All but four did. These four, Hyrum Smith, Joseph’s brother, John Taylor, and Willard Richards remained with Joseph all day. They wrote letters and John Taylor, a gifted musician, sang hymns. Around 5:00 p.m. that evening a mob of men with faces painted black surrounded the jail. Whether complicit or not, the jailor fired a warning shot then departed. The mob, comprised of the Carthage Greys who were supposed to have protected Joseph, stormed the jail. Joseph and the others had been transferred from the cell to a more comfortable bedroom on the second floor. As the mob rushed the jail, Joseph and Hyrum tried to hold the door. Joseph picked up a gun a friend had left for him. Joseph had said he did not want to use it, but promised that he would defend his friends. He fired three shots, wounding, but not killing three men. The gun then jammed. As Hyrum tried to hold the door, he was shot in the face and fell to the floor. His last words were: “I am a dead man!” Joseph dropped to the floor and cradled his dead brother for a moment. While the other men, Willard Richards and John Taylor, who would eventually be shot four times, but survive, held the door, Joseph walked to the window. No one knows why. Most likely he wanted to draw fire from his remaining friends. At the window he was shot. He collapsed, falling out the window and landing near a well. He was shot three more times as he lay on the ground either dead or dying. Before the mob could mutilate his body more, someone shouted that the Nauvoo militia was coming and the mob dispersed. Joseph Smith was dead. His friend, John Taylor, who was wounded with him, wrote an account of Joseph's Martyrdom which was later included in the Doctrine and Covenant as section 135

Nauvoo after the Martyrdom

Enemies of the Church, like Thomas Sharp, a newspaper editor in nearby Warsaw who had called for Joseph’s death, believed that the Church would dwindle without Joseph. They believed that Mormonism was just a personality cult around Joseph, but they were wrong. In the year after Joseph’s death, nearly 4,000 people joined themselves to Mormonism. They did not come to join a cult, but to follow the will of God through a living Prophet.

Still, many Mormons were at a loss. Some had believed that God would not let Joseph die, but Joseph Smith’s work was done. The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and other leaders rushed back to Nauvoo from their missionary work. In August, a conference was held to determine who would lead the Church. Sidney Rigdon, whom Joseph had repeatedly criticized for his violent speeches and pride, attempted to set himself up as Guardian of the Church. However, Brigham Young, speaking for the Quroum of the Twelve, addressed the assembly on August 8, 1844. He said that the power of the priesthood and right, or keys, to perform all the ordinances were still with the Church, because Joseph Smith had given them to the Twelve Apostles. Therefore, just as the Apostles led the Church in Peter and Paul’s time, they should lead it today. As he spoke, many said that Brigham Young was transfigured before them and it seemed as though Joseph Smith himself were talking. A vote was taken and nearly everyone, including Sidney, voted to accept the Quorum of the Twelve.

Joseph’s murder gave the Mormons a short respite, as their enemies waited for the Mormons to disintegrate. However, they did not. In fact, the Church continued to grow and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles continued sending Mormon Missionaries all over the globe. They also worked to the finish the temple. Once their enemies realized the Mormons were not going to leave, they began to attack them once again. In January of 1845, the Nauvoo charter was rescinded. To add insult to injury, in May, the leaders of the mob who murdered Joseph and Hyrum were acquitted in a sham trial where no Mormon was allowed to testify. By that fall, Brigham Young and the Twelve Apostles made two decisions: finish the temple and prepare to move to the Rocky Mountains where Joseph had prophesied years before, they would eventually live. In September, the citizens of Hancock County demanded that the Mormons leave. By December, the Nauvoo Temple was complete enough to permit the Mormons to begin receiving their temple endowments and to begin entering into celestial, or eternal marriage.

In February 1846, the first company of Mormons pioneers left Nauvoo, walking across a frozen Mississippi into Iowa. On February 8, the temple was officially dedicated, though the public dedication was not until May 1. The Mormons left in waves and founded temporary settlements along the Platte River in Iowa: Garden Gove, Mount Pisgah, Kanesville (now Council Bluffs), and finally Winter Quarters, Nebraska. The road was slow and soggy. On September 10, the last Mormons were attacked by mobs in the Battle of Nauvoo. By September 16, 1846, the last Mormons were driven from the city. Their beautiful temple was burned by an arsonist. Nauvoo, a city that in 1844 had rivaled even Chicago for size and beauty, was all but destroyed. In 1850, a tornado hit Nauvoo and finished what the arsonists had begun.

The Utah War

James Buchanan was the last antebellum President of the United States. A Democrat, his party was under intense pressure from the newly formed Republican party, which had campaigned strongly in 1856 on a platform opposed to "those twin relics of barbarism--polygamy and slavery." Slavery was not only legal, but a significant economic factor in fifteen states at the time; polygamy, practiced largely by Mormons in far-off Utah territory, made a much softer target. Thus, it posed an inviting safety valve for the political pressure.

In the meantime, some federal appointees to territorial offices in Utah had turned out to be incompetent or corrupt, or both. When the worst offenders were expelled from the territory and told that they were not wanted, a group of them formed a committee and accused the Mormons of rebelling against the authority of the United States. This gave Buchanan the pretext he needed. He appointed Alfred Cumming governor of Utah, and ordered five thousand troops to accompany him to the territory, under the command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston.

In making this move Buchanan, either by mistake or by design, neglected to notify the incumbent governor, Brigham Young, that he had been replaced. (The fact that the mail routes to Utah were ordered closed strongly suggests that Buchanan intended to keep Young in the dark.) The first Young heard of this event was when two Mormons, O. Porter Rockwell and Abraham O. Smoot, reported to him of what they had learned during a mail run to the east. This was on July 23, 1857; the army was already on the move.

Young had experienced the expulsion of the Saints from Missouri and Nauvoo, and was determined that they should not be driven from their homes again. Adopting the view that a military force of undeclared intentions is by default hostile, he made preparations to defend the territory against invasion. The territorial militia, which still bore the name of "The Nauvoo Legion," under the command of Daniel H. Wells and Lot Smith, began a campaign that avoided direct military confrontation, but operated on the army's supply trains and communications. This had the effect of crippling the army's ability to carry out offensive operations, but avoided bloodshed, which the Mormon authorities were at all times anxious to do. In this they were mostly successful, but for the single terrible exception of the Mountain Meadow Massacre.

See also Wikipedia's entry.

In April of 1858, after meeting with Cumming and obtaining assurances that the troops would not be permitted to harass Mormon settlers, Young resigned as governor, and within a few weeks the army was allowed to enter the Salt Lake Valley, and settled at Camp Floyd.

International Growth

Overview

Since World War II, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints -the Mormon Church– has experienced rapid international growth. After a brief summary of postwar revitalization and the attendant increases in membership, the article focuses on the adaptations that accompanied growth and internationalization. In surveying recent developments, it provides an introduction to the contemporary Church.

1945-1990 Post World War II International Growth

Following World War II, Mormon church President George Albert Smith was actively involved in sending goods from America to help resolve the suffering of church members and others in Europe, especially those in Germany who had been devastated by war. In 1946 Ezra Taft Benson, of the Council of the Twelve Apostles, organized the reopening of the European Mission and the Church's relief efforts there. He found church branches disorganized, meetinghouses destroyed, and many members without homes. Most had lost their possessions and were in great need of food and clothing. The Church's Welfare Services became a significant factor in the recovery of many church members and also those of other faiths (Ludlow, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, p.639).

Since many church operations, including missionary work and building construction had been postponed, it was necessary to revive and reestablish Church programs everywhere. It wasn’t long before the missionary force was reassembled and hundreds of meetinghouses were built. Following World War II, more than half of all Church expenditures went for building projects. Half of all the chapels in use during the mid-1950s were erected during this period of reconstruction (p. 639).

Becoming and International Church

The conclusion of World War II began an era of international expansion for the Mormon Church. In 1947, Church membership totaled one million, and by 1990 the sum reached over seven million. “Growth was especially strong along America's West Coast, in Latin America, and, after 1978, in Africa. In 1950 the Church had 180 organized stakes, nearly half of them in Utah; in 1990 there were 1,700 stakes, with less than one-fourth in Utah. In 1950 the Church was organized in fewer than 50 nations or territories, but by 1990 it had expanded to 128. Less than 8 percent of the Church lived outside the United States and Canada in 1950, but forty years later this was approximately 35 percent. During the same period the number of Mormon missionaries grew from 6,000 to 40,000 and the number of Mormon temples increased from eight, only one of which was outside the United States, to forty-four, with twenty-three outside the United States” (p. 639).

Church President David O. McKay was the first president to travel extensively. He toured missions in Europe, Latin America, Africa, and the South Pacific, dedicating two temple sites in Europe and announcing a new temple in New Zealand. “In 1955 he declared that the Church must put forth every effort within reason and practicability” to place educational and spiritual privileges within reach of the Church members in distant lands" (CR[Apr. 1955]:25). Emphasis was also placed on calling local missionaries to replace American missionaries (Ludlow, 639).

International expansion called for a sorting of practices, teachings, and programs to determine which of these truly constituted the core of the gospel and which reflected the American culture where the Mormon Church was founded. Apostle Bruce R. Mckonkie, in speaking to American Mormons said, "Other peoples have a different background than we have, which is of no moment to the Lord…It is no different to have different social customs than it is to have different languages…And the Lord knows all languages" (Palmer, pp. 143, 147). In 1987, Apostle Boyd K. Packer said to Mormon leaders, "We can't move [into various countries] with a 1947 Utah Church! Could it be that we are not prepared to take the gospel because we are not prepared to take (and they are not prepared to receive) all of the things we have wrapped up with it as extra baggage?" (as quoted in Dialogue 21 [Fall 1988]:97). The goal was to empower people of all cultures and perspectives to find true brotherhood and sisterhood within the Church (Ludlow, 642).

In 1974 President Spencer W. Kimball challenged members to increase their efforts of carrying the gospel to the world and “urged them to pray for barriers to be removed.” Efforts were made to work with international governments in resolving problems that hindered the Church's activities. “In 1977 the Church was legally recognized in Poland, and in 1985 a temple was dedicated in the German Democratic Republic. The dramatic political revolutions of 1989-1990 opened other eastern bloc countries,” leading to the beginnings of LDS missionary work in the Soviet Union (642).

On June 1978, President Spencer W. Kimball received a revelation extending priesthood blessings to all worthy male members. The revelation was preceded by long and earnest prayer. With this revelation, every faithful, worthy man in the Church was able to receive the holy priesthood without regard for race or color. (See Doctrine and Covenants: Declaration-2). Immediately, worthy black Mormons in Africa and other areas with significant black populations were sealed in Temples, given the Priesthood, called on church missions and called to serve in church leadership positions. “The first black church-wide General Authority, Elder Helvécio Martins of Brazil, was sustained at the general conference of the Church in April 1990” (642).

Church Education

Between 1950 and 1990 total enrollment in the Church's educational programs increased from 38,400 to 442,500 (see Church Educational System). Full-time enrollment at Mormon Church’s Brigham Young University soared from 5,400 in 1950 to nearly 25,000 by 1975. The major expansion in enrollment came in the area of religious education. Since the early twentieth century, students in predominantly LDS communities had attended "released time" seminary classes adjacent to their secondary schools. In the 1950s, beginning with California, "early morning" seminaries began meeting for studies in church buildings near public secondary schools. After 1968, in areas where the church was small, Mormon youth were given "home study" seminary materials. “The Church also increased the number of institutes of religion placed adjacent to college and university campuses. By 1990 seminary or institute programs were conducted in seventy-four nations or territories” (Ludlow, 644).

In this time period, college aged Mormons were given special attention. “In 1956 the first student stake, with twelve wards, was organized on the Brigham Young University campus.” This offered leadership opportunities to students and allowed church services to cater directly to students needs. Student wards were also established in areas where there were substantial college aged members. “Subjective evidence suggested greater spiritual growth [in these students]; and in such statistically measurable matters as temple marriage and attendance at meetings, student wards led the Church” (p.644).

In Pacific and Latin American areas, where the Church grew rapidly, the Church returned to its earlier practice of establishing schools for religious instruction and to teach educational basics. It established forty elementary and secondary schools in Mexico, and established a junior college on the just outside of Mexico City. As these countries developed their own educational facilities, the Church closed many schools (p.644).

Building Expansion

New Mormon congregations required new buildings. The Church found it necessary to complete more than one new meetinghouse every day. Potential costs were great, and many local Saints could not afford to raise their share (p.644).

While erecting school buildings in the South Pacific, a solution was discovered. A shortage of laborers began a program called, the “building missionaries.” The missionaries were called to donate their labor for two years. Experienced builders taught marketable skills to missionaries and the Church was able to build school facilities and church houses at a much lower cost. “In the 1950s and 1960s building missionaries erected schools and chapels in the South Pacific, Latin America, Europe, and elsewhere.” To minimize construction and maintenance costs, a series of standardized plans were created. The plans could be adapted to various locations and expanded as needed (p.644).

In addition to their tithes and fast offerings, local congregations were expected to contribute a significant portion of the money needed, as well as labor, for the building of their chapels. By 1989, local contribution was no longer required (p.644).

New meetinghouses became generally smaller and less original than earlier ones. This approach allowed hundreds of chapels to be erected annually, and most importantly, it provided badly needed meeting places in developing regions. This move also provided equality among church members. Whether or not a particular area was affluent, they could have a comfortable place to worship (p.644).

Technology and the Modern Church

The Church uses technology in many ways, including “architectural design, a computerized membership record system, automated accounting, processing missionary papers, record keeping at both the general and local level, and in providing resources for historical and genealogical research” (p.644).

Genealogical work has perhaps been affected the most by technology. As the Church grew, the need for an effective mode of gathering and processing names for temple work became greater. Vital records from around the world were filmed, making them available in its Salt Lake City Library and in hundreds of family history centers around the world. Beginning in the 1960s, the Genealogical Department began using computers to organize names obtained from these records. A widely used computerized genealogical program, called the “Personal Ancestral File,” was produced by The Family History Department. This allowed genealogical data to be available on laser disks (p.645).

Temples were also affected by technology. Temple instructions were able to be presented more efficiently and more effectively through motion picture and video technology. Because one room instead of the former series of four rooms could be used, temples could be smaller, incurring less cost to construct. This made it possible for members around the world to have a temple close to them. “New technology also makes it possible to present the ordinances in several languages simultaneously, if necessary” (p.645).

The Church has used television for communication and advertising. Both of these uses have had a dramatic effect on public opinion. In 1949, General conferences of the Church were first broadcast on KSL Television in Salt Lake City. By the mid-1960s, one or more session of each conference was being televised nationwide in the United States. A satellite communication system was developed in the 1980s which “connected to stake centers throughout the world so that Latter-day Saints could view both conference and other Church-initiated programs” (p.645).

Missionary Work

“By 1990 over two-thirds of the Church's annual growth came from convert baptisms. Approximately 30,000 of more than 40,000 full-time missionaries were young men ages nineteen to twenty-one; single women twenty-one years of age or older; couples who had reached retirement age made up most of the remainder” (p.645).

After analyzing and experimenting with proselytizing techniques and abilities, a systematic plan of lesson discussions was officially adopted in the 1950s. Refinement and modification resulted in the 1990 plan which focused less on memorization on the part of the missionaries and focused more on their ability to rely on the Holy Spirit in the presentation of outlined material (p.645).

Missionary training, including language instruction, became more thorough. “In 1963 a Language Training Mission, later known as missionary training center, was established near Brigham Young University, and five years later a similar program opened near the Church College of Hawaii (see Brigham Young University: Hawaii Campus). By 1990 missionaries were receiving intensive language and missionary training in fourteen missionary training centers around the world, though about 75 percent were attending the Provo center” (p.645).

Improvements to the missionary program included encouraging more Christian service and nonproselytizing activities. “In 1971, for instance, "health missionaries" began teaching the basics of nutrition, sanitation, and disease prevention, especially in developing countries. By 1990 all missionaries were urged to spend two to four hours a week in community service, in addition to proselyting.” In addition, the Church often assigned older missionary couples to nonproselyting Church service, “including health and Welfare work, leadership training, staffing visitors centers and doing other public relations activities, assisting patrons in the Church's various family history centers, temple service missions, and teaching missions”(p.645).

Administrative Changes

Due to the rapid international growth, in the early 1970s, administrative responsibilities at Church headquarters were consolidated. Formerly separate agencies were grouped into large departments. For example, “the Welfare, Social Services, and health programs were consolidated into a Welfare Services Department.” A new twenty-eight-story Church office building in Salt Lake City assisted in bringing most Church administrative units together. In 1970, the organizations of the Aaronic Priesthood and the Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association were combined. In 1971 the Church publishing program was consolidated. “Magazines in other languages than English were unified in 1967, with standardized content except for local matters (p.643).

Public Issues and Social Concerns

Though infrequent, Church leaders occasionally declare official political positions on moral issues. The growing flood of pornography has been lamented, as well as the “widespread practice of birth control, and abortion, and the general decline in moral standards, including the rising number of divorces and the increased prominence of homosexuality. In 1968 the Church became directly involved in Utah's political process by openly opposing liquor-by-the-drink. Public pronouncements have also been made in favor of Sunday closing laws and state right-to-work laws and against state lotteries” (p.645).

In the 1960s, amid the American civil rights conflict, the First Presidency “openly called for ‘full civil equality for all of God's children’ and specifically urged Latter-day Saints to work for civil rights for blacks.” In the 1970s, as women's rights controversy escalated, the Church leaders took a public stance favoring full equality for women but, at the same time, publicly opposing the Equal Rights Amendment as anti-family. Church Leaders were also “deeply concerned with the morality of the nuclear arms race and officially denounced it in 1980 and again in 1981” (p.646).

Since mid-century, most church members have lived in urban locations. The busy lifestyle in large cities “created added emotional strains, and an array of attractions and temptations tended to pull family members in different directions.” In response to the needs of church members, a series of social programs was established. A Church program which “operated an adoption agency and provided foster homes for disadvantaged children” was expanded. The Indian Student Placement Services, which began in the 1950s, now extended thousands of Native American children the opportunity to attend a good school while living in wholesome LDS family environments. Families who needed it had access to family and youth counseling. These three programs were combined in 1969 to form the Church's Social Services Department. Youth day camps, programs for members in prison, and counseling for alcohol or drug abusers were also sponsored by this organization (p.646).

In the 1970’s the Church also began to recognize the special needs of unmarried men and women. “Whether divorced, widowed, or simply never married, their social and spiritual needs were often not being met through traditional Church activities oriented toward couples and families.” Special programs were created for young single adults as well as older singles. The programs allowed them to participate in dances and other cultural activities, as well as providing better opportunities “to meet other members their own age who shared common interests” (p.646).

Return to Basics

In the 1980s, church members were called to return to traditional values. In particular, they were urged to study of the Book of Mormon as a way of strengthening their faith in Jesus Christ and receiving guidance through their trials (p.646).

In 1972 a systematic Gospel Doctrine program was established for Sunday school. The only texts would be the Bible, the Book of Mormon, The Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. These were to be studied in an eight-year (later four-year) rotation. Soon all Church curricula were tied directly to the scriptures (p.646).

In their effort to "return to basics," the Church meeting schedule was consolidated into a single three-hour block on Sundays, “replacing the traditional schedule of priesthood meeting and Sunday school in the morning, Sacrament meeting in the late afternoon or evening, and auxiliary meetings during the week (see Meetings, Major Church).” This was a result of the Church’s objective to allow more time for families to “study the scriptures and engage in other appropriate Sabbath activities together.” The new meeting schedule also relieved transportation challenges for many members (p.646).

As a result of these changes, in 1990 the Church was more prepared than ever to “accommodate diverse nationalities, language groups, and cultures.” Traditional doctrines were continuously emphasized by church leaders. General Conference addresses encouraged love, service, home, family, and worship of the Savior (Ensign 10 [May 1990]:6-8). Striving for these values is a significant part of what it means to be a Mormon.

Ludlow, Daniel H., ed. Encyclopedia of Mormonism. 1-4 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1992